THE INTRICACIES OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG: FROM MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53555/eijas.v9i2.170Keywords:
Climate change, Air pollution, Urbanization, NH3, SO2, NOx, VOCs, Photochemical smog, OzonAbstract
Rapid urbanization and industry can lead to an increase the air pollution. Through 1964 the, photochemical aspects of
air pollution are studied. In this review article, we have compiled data about the major processes that cause
photochemical smog, tropospheric ozone (O3), and other oxidants. Besides this natural and anthropogenic activities that
contribute to the formation of photochemical smog are also discussed so that mitigation and adaptation strategies can be
done in a better way. Photochemical smog is formed when sunlight reacts with volatile organic compounds and nitrogen
oxides. Due to these reactions, ozone and other pollutants are formed. Nowadays photochemical smog is a major problem
in urban areas during the summer. Sunlight acts as a major precursor in the formation of photochemical smog.
Photochemical air pollution is an emerging issue nowadays therefore we must implement strategies to reduce the
emissions from industries, vehicles, and power plants. The use of electric vehicles as compared to other vehicles can help
to reduce photochemical air pollution.
References
. Agarwal, S. K. (2005). Air pollution (Vol. 1). APH Publishing.
. Aidaoui, L., Triantafyllou, A. G., Azzi, A., Garas, S., & Matthaios, V. (2015). Elevated stacks’ pollutants’ dispersion
and their contributions to photochemical smog formation in a heavily industrialized area. Air Quality, Atmosphere
& Health, 8(2), 213-227.
. Burki, T. (2021). WHO introduces ambitious new air quality guidelines. The Lancet, 398(10306), 1117.
. Camara, J.G.; Lagunzad, J.K.D. Ocular findings in volcanic fog induced conjunctivitis. Hawaii Med. J. 2011, 70,
–265.
. Canaani, F., Fazli, M., & Ezzatian, V. (2017). Estimation of ground-level ozone and photochemical smog production
using concentrations of NOx and O3 in Isfahan. Iranian Journal of Geophysics, 10(4), 75-84.
. Chi, N. N. H., & Oanh, N. T. K. (2021). Photochemical smog modeling of PM2. 5 for assessment of associated
health impacts in crowded urban areas of Southeast Asia. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 21, 101241.
. Chu, B., Chen, T., Liu, Y., Ma, Q., Mu, Y., Wang, Y., ... & He, H. (2022). Application of smog chambers in
atmospheric process studies. National Science Review, 9(2), nwab103.53
. Cuciureanu, R., & Dimitriu, G. (2006). Photochemical reactions in the atmosphere–a source of secondary pollutants.
. Dam, D. A., & Nguyen, T. K. O. (2008). Photochemical smog introduction and episode selection for the groundlevel ozone in Hanoi, Vietnam. VNU Journal of Science: Earth and Environmental Sciences, 24(4).
. Fatima, R., Basharat, U., Safdar, A., Haidri, I., Fatima, A., Mahmood, A., Ullah, Q., Ummer, K., & Qasim, M.
(2024). AVAILABILITY OF PHOSPHOROUS TO THE SOIL, THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR ROOTS OF
PLANTS AND ENVIRONMENT. EPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Research, 10(1),
–34.
. Folabi, T.; Phan, T. Evaluation of Volatile Organic Compounds and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons in Barker Reservoir
in Houston, Texas after the 2017 Hurricane Harvey. Am. J. Anal. Chem. 2020, 11, 376–388
. Fritz BK, Hoffmann WC, Lan Y, Thomson SJ, Huany Y. Low–level Atmospheric temperature Inversions and
Atmospheric Stability Characteristics and Impacts on Agricultural Applications. Fundamental laws of the republic
Islamic of Iran. 2008. p. 26. 50 the principle.
. Haagen-Smit, A. J., & Wayne, L. G. (2013). Atmospheric reactions and scavenging processes. Air pollution, 1, 149-
. Haidri, I., Shahid, M., Hussain, S., Shahzad, T., Mahmood, F., Hassan, M. U., Al-Khayri, J. M., Aldaej, M. I., Sattar,
M. N., & Rezk, A. A.-S. (2023). Efficacy of Biogenic Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Treating Wastewater for
Sustainable Wheat Cultivation. Plants, 12(17), 3058.
. Hallquist, M., Munthe, J., Hu, M., Wang, T., Chan, C. K., Gao, J., ... & Thynell, M. (2016). Photochemical smog in
China: scientific challenges and implications for air-quality policies. National Science Review, 3(4), 401-403.
. Hu, G., Xu, Y., & Jia, L. (2011). Effects of relative humidity on the characterization of a photochemical smog
chamber. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 23(12), 2013-2018.
. Hussain, S. R., Rashid, M. Z., Haidri, I., Shafqat, U., & Mahmood, F. (2024). Assessing global good agricultural
practices standard adoption: insights from fruit and vegetable farmers in Pakistan. Italian Journal of Food Safety.
. Ibrahim, M. (2019). Air quality analyses for photochemical smog associated with atmospheric aerosol particles and
ozone precursors using CMAQ and CAMx modeling systems. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science
and Technology, 224, 235.
. Ihedike, C., Price, M., & Mooney, J. (2018). The effects of photochemical air pollution on respiratory health in Abuja
Nigeria. In 11th International Conference on Air Quality Science and Application. Proceedings.
. İm, U., Tayanç, M., & Yenigün, O. (2008). Interaction patterns of major photochemical pollutants in Istanbul,
Turkey. Atmospheric Research, 89(4), 382-390.
. ISA Ground–level ozone smog city, Environmental science Activities for the 21st century. 2003.
. Kemp, A.C.; Horton, B.P.; Donnelly, J.P.; Mann, M.E.; Vermeer, M.; Rahmstorf, S. Climate-related sea-level
variations over the past two millennia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 11017–11022.
. Kleeman, M. J., Ying, Q., Lu, J., Mysliwiec, M. J., Griffin, R. J., Chen, J., & Clegg, S. (2007). Source apportionment
of secondary organic aerosol during a severe photochemical smog episode. Atmospheric Environment, 41(3), 576-
. Komolafe, A. A., Adegboyega, S. A. A., Anifowose, A. Y., Akinluyi, F. O., & Awoniran, D. R. (2014). Air pollution
and climate change in Lagos, Nigeria: needs for proactive approaches to risk management and adaptation. American
Journal of Environmental Sciences, 10(4), 412.
. Lai, L.W. Effect of photochemical smog associated with synoptic weather patterns on cardiovascular and respiratory
hospital admissions in metropolitan Taipei. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2012, 22, 287–304.
. Leighton, P. (2012). Photochemistry of air pollution. Elsevier.
. Longo, B.M. Adverse Health Effects Associated with Increased Activity at Kılauea Volcano: A Repeated
Population-Based Survey. ISRN Public Health 2013, 2013, 475962.
. Louka, P., Finzi, G., Volta, M., & Colbeck, I. (2003). Photochemical smog in South European cities. In Air quality
in cities (pp. 185-222). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
. Ma, J., Xu, X., Zhao, C., & Yan, P. (2012). A review of atmospheric chemistry research in China: Photochemical
smog, haze pollution, and gas-aerosol interactions. Advances in atmospheric sciences, 29(5), 1006-1026.
. Mason, R. S. (2013). Atmospheric photochemistry. In Applied Photochemistry (pp. 217-246). Springer, Dordrecht.
. Mohan Kumar K. Photochemical Smog: mechanism, ill-effects, and control. Engineering Department, Institute of
Technology, Banarra Hindu University; 2002.
. Muilwijk, C., Schrijvers, P. J. C., Wuerz, S., & Kenjereš, S. (2016). Simulations of photochemical smog formation
in complex urban areas. Atmospheric Environment, 147, 470-484.
. Mukherjee, A.; Agrawal, M. World air particulate matter: Sources, distribution and health effects. Environ. Chem.
Lett. 2017, 15, 283–309.
. Munawer, M.E. Human health and environmental impacts of coal combustion and post-combustion wastes. J.
Sustain. Min. 2018, 17, 87–96
. Narumi, D., Kondo, A., & Shimoda, Y. (2009). The effect of the increase in urban temperature on the concentration
of photochemical oxidants. Atmospheric Environment, 43(14), 2348-2359.
. Oanh, N. T. K., & Zhang, B. (2004). Photochemical smog modeling for assessment of potential impacts of different
management strategies on air quality of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand. Journal of the Air & Waste
Management Association, 54(10), 1321-1338.54
. Oanh, N. T. K., Permadi, D. A., Bao-Ning, Z., Huy, T. N. Q., Phuong, N. L., Kanabkaew, T., & Iqbal, A. (2012).
Applications of photochemical smog models for assessment of ozone, particulate matter air quality, and acid
deposition in Asian Cities. Integrated Air Quality Management: Asian Case Studies, 151-198.
. Rani, B., Singh, U., Chuhan, A. K., Sharma, D., & Maheshwari, R. (2011). Photochemical Smog Pollution and Its
Mitigation Measures. Journal of Advanced Scientific Research, 2(4).
. Rappenglück, B., Oyola, P., Olaeta, I., & Fabian, P. (2000). The evolution of photochemical smog in the
Metropolitan Area of Santiago de Chile. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 39(3), 275-290.
. Raza, W., Saeed, S., Saulat, H., Gul, H., Sarfraz, M., Sonne, C., ... & Kim, K. H. (2021). A review on the deteriorating
situation of smog and its preventive measures in Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 279, 123676.
. Roberts, J. M. (2007). PAN and related compounds. Volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, 221-268.8
. Safavi Y, Alijani B. Geographical agents analyzing in air pollution in Tehran. Geographical Research.
;58(1):106-151
. Samet, J.M. Ozone and respiratory health the story continues. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2015, 192, 272–273.
. Schauer, J. J., Fraser, M. P., Cass, G. R., & Simoneit, B. R. (2002). Source reconciliation of atmospheric gas-phase
and particle-phase pollutants during a severe photochemical smog episode. Environmental science & technology,
(17), 3806-3814.
. Sillman, S. (2003). Tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog. Environmental geochemistry, 9, 407-31.
. Sonwani, S., & Saxena, P. (2016). Identifying the sources of primary air pollutants and their impact on environmental
health: a review. IJETR, 6(2), 111-130.
. Tirabassi, T., Deserti, M., Passoni, L., & Kerschbaumer, A. (2001). Photochemical smog evaluation in an urban area
for environmental management. Moscow, Russia, September.
. Todd, D. (2005). MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS ON PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG IN THE PERTH AIRSHED.
. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for oxides of nitrogen -health criteria
(Final Report, January 2016). EPA/600/R-15/068. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016.
. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for sulfur oxides - health criteria (Final
Report, December 2017). EPA/600/R-17/451. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for particulate matter (Final Report,
December 2019). EPA/600/R-19/188. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2019.
. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for ozone and related photochemical
oxidants (Final Report, April 2020). EPA/600/R-20/012. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
. Ullah, Q., Qasim, M., Abaidullah, A., Afzal, R., Mahmood, A., Fatima, A., & Haidri, I. (2024). EXPLORING THE
INFLUENCE OF NANOPARTICLES AND PGPRS ON THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
WHEAT PLANTS: A REVIEW. EPH-International Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Research, 10(1), 1–
. Walsh, S., Cope, M., Goudey, R., Bisignanesi, V., & Dewundege, P. (2009). Urban ventilation and photochemical
smog in Melbourne for a future climate scenario. In 9th International.
. Wang, H.; Wang, Q.; Gao, Y.; Zhou, M.; Jing, S.; Qiao, L.; Yuan, B.; Huang, D.; Huang, C.; Lou, S.; et al. Estimation
of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation During a Photochemical Smog Episode in Shanghai, China. J. Geophys.
Res. Atmos. 2020, 125, 1–14.
. Wang, T., & Kwok, J. Y. (2003). Measurement and analysis of a multiday photochemical smog episode in the Pearl
River Delta of China. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 42(3), 404-416.
. Wang, X., Chen, J., Cheng, T., Zhang, R., & Wang, X. (2014). Particle number concentration, size distribution and
chemical composition during haze and photochemical smog episodes in Shanghai. Journal of Environmental
Sciences, 26(9), 1894-1902.
. Wang, X., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Xie, S., & Tang, X. (2009). Ozone source attribution during a severe photochemical
smog episode in Beijing, China. Science in China Series B: Chemistry, 52(8), 1270-1280.
. Williams-Jones, G.; Rymer, H. Hazards of Volcanic Gases, 2nd ed.; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
; ISBN 9780123859389.
. Wu, Y., Fan, X., Liu, Y., Zhang, J., Wang, H., Sun, L., ... & Wang, S. (2023). Source apportionment of VOCs based
on photochemical loss in summer at a suburban site in Beijing. Atmospheric Environment, 293, 119459.
. Zhang, B. N., & Oanh, N. K. (2002). Photochemical smog pollution in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region of Thailand
in relation to O3 precursor concentrations and meteorological conditions. Atmospheric Environment, 36(26), 4211-
. Zhang, B.; Zhao, B.; Zuo, P.; Huang, Z.; Zhang, J. Influencing factors and prediction of ambient Peroxyacetyl nitrate
concentration in Beijing, China. J. Environ. Sci. 2019, 77, 189–197.
. Zhang, J.; Chen, Q.; Wang, Q.; Ding, Z.; Sun, H.; Xu, Y. The acute health effects of ozone and PM2.5 on daily
cardiovascular disease mortality: A multi-center time series study in China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2019, 174,
–223.
. Zhao, H., Wang, S., Tang, Y., & Pan, Y. (2024). Theoretical study of degradation for polymethyl substituted
benzenes by OH radicals in the atmosphere. Chemosphere, 141243.55
. Zhu, W., Yao, N., Guo, Q., & Wang, F. (2020). Public risk perception and willingness to mitigate climate change:
city smog as an example. Environmental geochemistry and health, 42, 881-893
